§ 1591. Sex trafficking of children or by force, fraud, or coercion

Legislative history

Reconstructed from this section’s Code source credit and amendment notes, resolved against the local Statutes at Large. Editorial notes are evidence, not the law that made the change.

1. 2000

   Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000

   Pub. L. 106–386 div. A § 112(a)(2) · 114 Stat. 1464

   Enacted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591

   Added Pub. L. 106–386, div. A, § 112(a)(2), Oct. 28, 2000, 114 Stat. 1487

   Source evidence

   Code source credit
   Added Pub. L. 106–386, div. A, § 112(a)(2), Oct. 28, 2000, 114 Stat. 1487

   Enacted provision · exact public law section
   (2) by inserting at the end the following: “§ 1589. Forced labor “Whoever knowingly provides or obtains the labor or services of a person— “(1) by threats of serious harm to, or physical restraint against, that person or another person; “(2) by means of any scheme, plan, or pattern intended to cause the person to believe that, if the person did not perform such labor or services, that person or another person would suffer serious harm or physical restraint; or “(3) by means of the abuse or threatened abuse of law or the legal process, shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than 20 years, or both. If death results from the violation of this section, or if the violation includes kidnapping or an attempt to kidnap, aggravated sexual abuse or the attempt to commit aggravated sexual abuse, or an attempt to kill, the defendant shall be fined under this title or imprisoned for any term of years or life, or both. “§ 1590. Trafficking with respect to peonage, slavery, involuntary servitude, or forced labor “Whoever knowingly recruits, harbors, transports, provides, or obtains by any means, any person for labor or services in violation of this chapter shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than 20 years, or both. If death results from the violation of this section, or if the violation includes kidnapping or an attempt to kidnap, aggravated sexual abuse, or the attempt to commit aggravated sexual abuse, or an attempt to kill, the defendant shall be fined under this title or imprisoned for any term of years or life, or both. “§ 1591. Sex trafficking of children or by force, fraud or coercion “(a) Whoever knowingly— “(1) in or affecting interstate commerce, recruits, entices, harbors, transports, provides, or obtains by any means a person; or “(2) benefits, financially or by receiving anything of value, from participation in a venture which has engaged in an act described in violation of paragraph (1), knowing that force, fraud, or coercion described in subsection (c)(2) will be used to cause the person to engage in a commercial sex act, or that the person has not attained the age of 18 years and will be caused to engage in a commercial sex act, shall be punished as provided in subsection (b). “(b) The punishment for an offense under subsection (a) is— “(1) if the offense was effected by force, fraud, or coercion or if the person transported had not attained the age of 14 years at the time of such offense, by a fine under thus title or imprisonment for any term of years or for life, or both; or “(2) if the offense was not so effected, and the person transported had attained the age of 14 years but had not attained the age of 18 years at the time of such offense, by a fine under this title or imprisonment for not more than 20 years, or both. “(c) In this section: “(1) The term ‘commercial sex act’ means any sex act, on account of which anything of value is given to or received by any person. “(2) The term ‘coercion’ means— “(A) threats of serious harm to or physical restraint against any person; “(B) any scheme, plan, or pattern intended to cause a person to believe that failure to perform an act would result in serious harm to or physical restraint against any person; or “(C) the abuse or threatened abuse of law or the legal process. “(3) The term ‘venture’ means any group of two or more individuals associated in fact, whether or not a legal entity. “§ 1592. Unlawful conduct with respect to documents in furtherance of trafficking, peonage, slavery, involuntary servitude, or forced labor “(a) Whoever knowingly destroys, conceals, removes, confiscates, or possesses any actual or purported passport or other immigration document, or any other actual or purported government identification document, of another person— “(1) in the course of a violation of section 1581, 1583, 1584, 1589, 1590, 1591, or 1594(a); “(2) with intent to violate section 1581, 1583, 1584, 1589, 1590, or 1591; or “(3) to prevent or restrict or to attempt to prevent or restrict, without lawful authority, the persons liberty to move or travel, in order to maintain the labor or services of that person, when the person is or has been a victim of a severe form of trafficking in persons, as defined in section 103 of the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000, shall be fined under this title or imprisoned for not more than 5 years, or both. “(b) Subsection (a) does not apply to the conduct of a person who is or has been a victim of a severe form of trafficking in persons, as defined in section 103 of the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000, if that conduct is caused by, or incident to, that trafficking. “§ 1593. Mandatory restitution “(a) Notwithstanding section 3663 or 3663A, and in addition to any other civil or criminal penalties authorized by law, the court shall order restitution for any offense under this chapter. “(b) (1) The order of restitution under this section shall direct the defendant to pay the victim (through the appropriate court mechanism) the full amount of the victim’s losses, as determined by the court under paragraph (3) of this subsection. “(2) An order of restitution under this section shall be issued and enforced in accordance with section 3664 in the same manner as an order under section 3663A. “(3) As used in this subsection, the term ‘full amount of the victim’s losses’ has the same meaning as provided in section 2259(b)(3) and shall in addition include the greater of the gross income or value to the defendant of the victim’s services or labor or the value of the victim’s labor as guaranteed under the minimum wage and overtime guarantees of the Fair Labor Standards Act (29 U.S.C. 201 et seq.). “(c) As used in this section, the term ‘victim’ means the individual harmed as a result of a crime under this chapter, including, in the case of a victim who is under 18 years of age, incompetent, incapacitated, or deceased, the legal guardian of the victim or a representative of the victim’s estate, or another family member, or any other person appointed as suitable by the court, but in no event shall the defendant be named such representative or guardian. “§ 1594. General provisions “(a) Whoever attempts to violate section 1581, 1583, 1584, 1589, 1590, or 1591 shall be punishable in the same manner as a completed violation of that section. “(b) The court, in imposing sentence on any person convicted of a violation of this chapter, shall order, in addition to any other sentence imposed and irrespective of any provision of State law, that such person shall forfeit to the United States— “(1) such person’s interest in any property, real or personal, that was used or intended to be used to commit or to facilitate the commission of such violation; and “(2) any property, real or personal, constituting or derived from, any proceeds that such person obtained, directly or indirectly, as a result of such violation. “(c) (1) The following shall be subject to forfeiture to the United States and no property right shall exist in them: “(A) Any property, real or personal, used or intended to be used to commit or to facilitate the commission of any violation of this chapter. “(B) Any property, real or personal, which constitutes or is derived from proceeds traceable to any violation of this chapter. “(2) The provisions of chapter 46 of this title relating to civil forfeitures shall extend to any seizure or civil forfeiture under this subsection. “(d) Witness Protection.— Any violation of this chapter shall be considered an organized criminal activity or other serious offense for the purposes of application of chapter 224 (relating to witness protection). ; and

2. 2003

   Prosecutorial Remedies and Other Tools to end the Exploitation of Children Today Act of 2003

   Pub. L. 108–21 title I § 103(a)(3) · 117 Stat. 650

   Substituted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(b)(2)

   Pub. L. 108–21 substituted “40” for “20”

   Source evidence

   Code amendment note
   Subsec. (b)(2). Pub. L. 108–21 substituted “40” for “20”.

   Enacted provision · exact public law section
   (3) Section 1591(b)(2) of title 18, United States Code, is amended by striking “20” and inserting “40”.

3. 2003

   Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2003

   Pub. L. 108–193 § 5(a)(1) · 117 Stat. 2875

   Inserted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591

   Pub. L. 108–193, § 5(a)(1), inserted comma after “fraud” in section catchline

   Source evidence

   Code amendment note
   Pub. L. 108–193, § 5(a)(1), inserted comma after “fraud” in section catchline.

   Enacted provision · exact public law section
   (1) in the heading, by inserting a comma after “fraud”;

4. 2003

   Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2003

   Pub. L. 108–193 § 5(a)(2) · 117 Stat. 2875

   Substituted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(a)(1)

   Pub. L. 108–193, § 5(a)(2), substituted “in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce, or within the special maritime and territorial jurisdiction of the United States” for “in or affecting interstate commerce”

   Source evidence

   Code amendment note
   Subsec. (a)(1). Pub. L. 108–193, § 5(a)(2), substituted “in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce, or within the special maritime and territorial jurisdiction of the United States” for “in or affecting interstate commerce”.

   Enacted provision · exact public law section
   (2) in subsection (a)(1), by striking “in or affecting interstate commerce” and inserting “in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce, or within the special maritime and territorial jurisdiction of the United States”; and

5. 2003

   Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2003

   Pub. L. 108–193 § 5(a)(3) · 117 Stat. 2875

   Substituted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(b)

   Pub. L. 108–193, § 5(a)(3), substituted “the person recruited, enticed, harbored, transported, provided, or obtained” for “the person transported” in pars. (1) and (2)

   Source evidence

   Code amendment note
   Subsec. (b). Pub. L. 108–193, § 5(a)(3), substituted “the person recruited, enticed, harbored, transported, provided, or obtained” for “the person transported” in pars. (1) and (2).

   Enacted provision · exact public law section
   (3) in subsection (b), by striking “the person transported” each place it appears and inserting “the person recruited, enticed, harbored, transported, provided, or obtained”.

6. 2006

   Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act of 2006

   Pub. L. 109–248 § 208(1) · 120 Stat. 587

   Substituted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(b)(1)

   Pub. L. 109–248, § 208(1), substituted “and imprisonment for any term of years not less than 15 or for life” for “or imprisonment for any term of years or for life, or both”

   Source evidence

   Code amendment note
   Subsec. (b)(1). Pub. L. 109–248, § 208(1), substituted “and imprisonment for any term of years not less than 15 or for life” for “or imprisonment for any term of years or for life, or both”.

   Enacted provision · exact public law section
   (1) in paragraph (1)— (A) by striking “or imprisonment” and inserting “and imprisonment”; (B) by inserting “not less than 15” after “any term of years”; and (C) by striking “, or both”; and

7. 2006

   Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act of 2006

   Pub. L. 109–248 § 208(2)(B) · 120 Stat. 587

   Struck · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(b)(2)

   Pub. L. 109–248, § 208(2)(B), which directed amendment of subsec. (b)(2) by striking out “, or both”, could not be executed because that language did not appear in text subsequent to amendment by Pub. L. 109–248, § 208(2)(A). See below

   Source evidence

   Code amendment note
   Subsec. (b)(2). Pub. L. 109–248, § 208(2)(B), which directed amendment of subsec. (b)(2) by striking out “, or both”, could not be executed because that language did not appear in text subsequent to amendment by Pub. L. 109–248, § 208(2)(A). See below.

   Enacted provision · exact public law section
   (B) by striking “, or both”.

8. 2006

   Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act of 2006

   Pub. L. 109–248 § 208(2)(A) · 120 Stat. 587

   Substituted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(b)(2)

   Pub. L. 109–248, § 208(2)(A), substituted “and imprisonment for not less than 10 years or for life” for “or imprisonment for not more than 40 years, or both”

   Target inherited from the preceding amendment note.

   Source evidence

   Code amendment note
   Pub. L. 109–248, § 208(2)(A), substituted “and imprisonment for not less than 10 years or for life” for “or imprisonment for not more than 40 years, or both”.

   Enacted provision · exact public law section
   (A) by striking “or imprisonment for not more than 40 years, or both” and inserting “and imprisonment for not less than 10 years or for life”; and

9. 2008

   William Wilberforce Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2008

   Pub. L. 110–457 § 222(b)(5)(A)(ii) · 122 Stat. 5044

   Substituted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(a)

   Pub. L. 110–457, § 222(b)(5)(A)(ii), substituted “, or in reckless disregard of the fact, that means of force, threats of force, fraud, coercion described in subsection (e)(2), or any combination of such means” for “that force, fraud, or coercion described in subsection (c)(2)” in concluding provisions

   Source evidence

   Code amendment note
   Subsec. (a). Pub. L. 110–457, § 222(b)(5)(A)(ii), substituted “, or in reckless disregard of the fact, that means of force, threats of force, fraud, coercion described in subsection (e)(2), or any combination of such means” for “that force, fraud, or coercion described in subsection (c)(2)” in concluding provisions.

   Enacted provision · exact public law section
   (ii) in the matter following paragraph (2), by striking “that force, fraud, or coercion described in subsection (c)(2)” and inserting “, or in reckless disregard of the fact, that means of force, threats of force, fraud, coercion described in subsection (e)(2), or any combination of such means”;

10. 2008

    William Wilberforce Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2008

    Pub. L. 110–457 § 222(b)(5)(A)(i) · 122 Stat. 5044

    Substituted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(a)(1)

    Pub. L. 110–457, § 222(b)(5)(A)(i), substituted “obtains, or maintains” for “or obtains”

    Source evidence

    Code amendment note
    Subsec. (a)(1). Pub. L. 110–457, § 222(b)(5)(A)(i), substituted “obtains, or maintains” for “or obtains”.

    Enacted provision · exact public law section
    (i) in paragraph (1), by striking “or obtains” and inserting “obtains, or maintains”; and

11. 2008

    William Wilberforce Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2008

    Pub. L. 110–457 § 222(b)(5)(C) · 122 Stat. 5044

    Substituted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(b)(1)

    Pub. L. 110–457, § 222(b)(5)(C), substituted “means of force, threats of force, fraud, or coercion described in subsection (e)(2), or by any combination of such means,” for “force, fraud, or coercion”

    Source evidence

    Code amendment note
    Subsec. (b)(1). Pub. L. 110–457, § 222(b)(5)(C), substituted “means of force, threats of force, fraud, or coercion described in subsection (e)(2), or by any combination of such means,” for “force, fraud, or coercion”.

    Enacted provision · exact public law section
    (C) in subsection (b)(1), by striking “force, fraud, or coercion” and inserting “means of force, threats of force, fraud, or coercion described in subsection (e)(2), or by any combination of such means,”;

12. 2008

    William Wilberforce Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2008

    Pub. L. 110–457 § 222(b)(5)(D) · 122 Stat. 5044

    Redesignated · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(c); 18 U.S.C. § 1591(d)

    Pub. L. 110–457, § 222(b)(5)(D), added subsecs. (c) and (d). Former subsec. (c) redesignated (e)

    Source evidence

    Code amendment note
    Subsecs. (c), (d). Pub. L. 110–457, § 222(b)(5)(D), added subsecs. (c) and (d). Former subsec. (c) redesignated (e).

    Enacted provision · exact public law section
    (D) by inserting after subsection (b) the following: “(c) In a prosecution under subsection (a)(1) in which the defendant had a reasonable opportunity to observe the person so recruited, enticed, harbored, transported, provided, obtained or maintained, the Government need not prove that the defendant knew that the person had not attained the age of 18 years. “(d) Whoever obstructs, attempts to obstruct, or in any way interferes with or prevents the enforcement of this section, shall be fined under this title, imprisoned for a term not to exceed 20 years, or both.” ;

13. 2008

    William Wilberforce Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2008

    Pub. L. 110–457 § 222(b)(5)(B) · 122 Stat. 5044

    1. Redesignated · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(e)

       Pub. L. 110–457, § 222(b)(5)(B), (E), redesignated subsec. (c) as (e)

    2. Added · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(e)

       Pub. L. 110–457, § 222(b)(5)(B), (E), added pars. (1) and (4)

    3. Redesignated · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(e)

       Pub. L. 110–457, § 222(b)(5)(B), (E), redesignated former pars. (1) and (3) as (3) and (5), respectively

    Source evidence

    Code amendment note
    Subsec. (e). Pub. L. 110–457, § 222(b)(5)(B), (E), redesignated subsec. (c) as (e), added pars. (1) and (4), and redesignated former pars. (1) and (3) as (3) and (5), respectively.

    Enacted provision · exact public law section
    (B) by redesignating subsection (c) as subsection (e);

14. 2015

    Stop Advertising Victims of Exploitation Act of 2015

    Pub. L. 114–22 § 118(b)(2) · 129 Stat. 227

    Inserted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(a)

    Pub. L. 114–22, § 118(b)(2), inserted “, except where the act constituting the violation of paragraph (1) is advertising,” after “knowing, or” in concluding provisions

    Source evidence

    Code amendment note
    Subsec. (a). Pub. L. 114–22, § 118(b)(2), inserted “, except where the act constituting the violation of paragraph (1) is advertising,” after “knowing, or” in concluding provisions.

    Enacted provision · exact public law section
    (2) Mens rea requirement.— Section 1591(a) of title 18, United States Code, is amended in the undesignated matter following paragraph (2), by inserting “, except where the act constituting the violation of paragraph (1) is advertising,” after “knowing, or”.

15. 2015

    Stop Advertising Victims of Exploitation Act of 2015

    Pub. L. 114–22 § 118(b)(1) · 129 Stat. 227

    Inserted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(a)(1)

    Pub. L. 114–22, § 118(b)(1), inserted “advertises,” after “obtains,”

    Source evidence

    Code amendment note
    Subsec. (a)(1). Pub. L. 114–22, § 118(b)(1), inserted “advertises,” after “obtains,”.

    Enacted provision · exact public law section
    (1) In general.— Section 1591(a)(1) of title 18, United States Code, as amended by this Act, is further amended by inserting “advertises,” after “obtains,”.

16. 2015

    Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act of 2015

    Pub. L. 114–22 § 108(a)(1) · 129 Stat. 227

    Substituted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(a)(1)

    Pub. L. 114–22, § 108(a)(1), substituted “maintains, patronizes, or solicits” for “or maintains”

    Target inherited from the preceding amendment note.

    Source evidence

    Code amendment note
    Pub. L. 114–22, § 108(a)(1), substituted “maintains, patronizes, or solicits” for “or maintains”.

    Enacted provision · exact public law section
    (1) in subsection (a)(1), by striking “or maintains” and inserting “maintains, patronizes, or solicits”;

17. 2015

    Stop Advertising Victims of Exploitation Act of 2015

    Pub. L. 114–22 § 118(b)(3)(A) · 129 Stat. 227

    Inserted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(b)(1)

    Pub. L. 114–22, § 118(b)(3)(A), inserted “advertised,” after “obtained,”

    Source evidence

    Code amendment note
    Subsec. (b)(1). Pub. L. 114–22, § 118(b)(3)(A), inserted “advertised,” after “obtained,”.

    Enacted provision · exact public law section
    (A) in paragraph (1), by inserting “advertised,” after “obtained,”; and

18. 2015

    Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act of 2015

    Pub. L. 114–22 § 108(a)(2)(A) · 129 Stat. 227

    Substituted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(b)(1)

    Pub. L. 114–22, § 108(a)(2)(A), substituted “obtained, patronized, or solicited” for “or obtained”

    Target inherited from the preceding amendment note.

    Source evidence

    Code amendment note
    Pub. L. 114–22, § 108(a)(2)(A), substituted “obtained, patronized, or solicited” for “or obtained”.

    Enacted provision · exact public law section
    (A) in paragraph (1), by striking “or obtained” and inserting “obtained, patronized, or solicited”; and

19. 2015

    Stop Advertising Victims of Exploitation Act of 2015

    Pub. L. 114–22 § 118(b)(3)(B) · 129 Stat. 227

    Inserted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(b)(2)

    Pub. L. 114–22, § 118(b)(3)(B), inserted “advertised,” after “obtained,”

    Source evidence

    Code amendment note
    Subsec. (b)(2). Pub. L. 114–22, § 118(b)(3)(B), inserted “advertised,” after “obtained,”.

    Enacted provision · exact public law section
    (B) in paragraph (2), by inserting “advertised,” after “obtained,”.

20. 2015

    Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act of 2015

    Pub. L. 114–22 § 108(a)(2)(B) · 129 Stat. 227

    Substituted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(b)(2)

    Pub. L. 114–22, § 108(a)(2)(B), substituted “obtained, patronized, or solicited” for “or obtained”

    Target inherited from the preceding amendment note.

    Source evidence

    Code amendment note
    Pub. L. 114–22, § 108(a)(2)(B), substituted “obtained, patronized, or solicited” for “or obtained”.

    Enacted provision · exact public law section
    (B) in paragraph (2), by striking “or obtained” and inserting “obtained, patronized, or solicited”; and

21. 2015

    Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act of 2015

    Pub. L. 114–22 § 108(a)(3) · 129 Stat. 227

    1. Substituted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(c)

       Pub. L. 114–22, § 108(a)(3), substituted “, maintained, patronized, or solicited” for “or maintained”

    2. Substituted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(c)

       Pub. L. 114–22, § 108(a)(3), substituted “knew, or recklessly disregarded the fact, that the person” for “knew that the person”

    Source evidence

    Code amendment note
    Subsec. (c). Pub. L. 114–22, § 108(a)(3), substituted “, maintained, patronized, or solicited” for “or maintained” and “knew, or recklessly disregarded the fact, that the person” for “knew that the person”.

    Enacted provision · exact public law section
    (3) in subsection (c)— (A) by striking “or maintained” and inserting “, maintained, patronized, or solicited”; and (B) by striking “knew that the person” and inserting “knew, or recklessly disregarded the fact, that the person”.

22. 2018

    Allow States and Victims to Fight Online Sex Trafficking Act of 2017

    Pub. L. 115–164 § 5 · 132 Stat. 1253

    1. Added · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(e)(4)(6)

       Pub. L. 115–164 added par. (4)

    2. Redesignated · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(e)(4)(6)

       Pub. L. 115–164 redesignated former pars. (4) and (5) as (5) and (6), respectively

    Source evidence

    Code amendment note
    Subsec. (e)(4) to (6). Pub. L. 115–164 added par. (4) and redesignated former pars. (4) and (5) as (5) and (6), respectively.

    Enacted provision · exact public law section
    SEC. 5. ENSURING FEDERAL LIABILITY FOR PUBLISHING INFORMATION DESIGNED TO FACILITATE SEX TRAFFICKING OR OTHERWISE FACILITATING SEX TRAFFICKING.   Section 1591(e) of title 18, United States Code, is amended— (1) by redesignating paragraphs (4) and (5) as paragraphs (5) and (6), respectively; and (2) by inserting after paragraph (3) the following: “(4) The term ‘participation in a venture’ means knowingly assisting, supporting, or facilitating a violation of subsection (a)(1).” .

23. 2018

    Abolish Human Trafficking Act of 2017

    Pub. L. 115–392 § 11(1)(C) · 132 Stat. 5250

    Substituted · 18 U.S.C. § 1591(d)

    Pub. L. 115–392 substituted “25 years” for “20 years”

    Source evidence

    Code amendment note
    Subsec. (d). Pub. L. 115–392 substituted “25 years” for “20 years”.

    Enacted provision · exact public law section
    (C) in section 1591(d), by striking “20 years” and inserting “25 years”; and

27 of 27 references resolved to an enrolled provision